President Of US Essays - Heads Of State, Titles,

Leader of US The President of the United States - this title has come to gain so much respect, as it is considered the most remarkable chosen official on the planet (World Book). A portion of America's most recognized men were once presidents, and we review such extraordinary names as George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and John F. Kennedy. This lofty position isn't something one is simply given, and when one gets it, it is extremely difficult work. In this paper, I will help delineate the job of the President, and his/her effect on our American Government. The situation of President was made during and following the Revolutionary War under laws called the Articles of Confederation. The name itself originated from the first name for the main official who directed congress. The principal man who had taken this position was George Washington, whose name each American knows about. To the position, Washington brought extraordinary boldness, esteem, and intelligence (Schlesinger, 21), also, made a kind of inheritance for those after him to follow. The heritage was followed, and extended with men who deciphered the constitution in new manners, furthermore, expanded the intensity of the administration. Presidents, for example, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln are instances of this. As America turned into a world power, the President was given more force. Men like Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, FDR, and John F. Kennedy at that point utilized the situation to propel the opportunity of our nation, and energize the advancement of our brains and spirits. As time passed, rules and guidelines were made to guarantee the President's activity was for the wellbeing of this nation. For example, to become President, one must pass some specific lawful capabilities set by the Constitution. The President must be 35 years of age, have lived in the United States in any event 14 years, and be a characteristic conceived resident (World Book). These capabilities were set as a methods of sifting through certain up-and-comers. To serve this country productively, our ancestors accepted that you should be more established, and of American legacy. These rules were made in insurance of the government assistance of our nation. With the twenty-second alteration came the breaking point on the President's expression of office. Prior to this, a president could be in office as long as the individuals chose him, for example, Roosevelt, who remained in the White House from March 1945 to his demise in April 1945. The cutoff set up now is that no president can be chosen for Presidentcy more than twice, and no one who has served over two years of another person's term can be chosen more than once. Another set standard is the compensation of the President. As built up by congress, the President gets $200,000 every year, excluding the $50,000 the CEO likewise gets for costs, remittances for staff, travel, and upkeep of the White House. Subsequent to leaving office, the President fits the bill for a fundamental annuity. Starting at 1990, a recently resigned president would get a weighty annuity of about $138,900 yearly, also, utilization of office space, staff, and mailing costs. Bereft mates of previous Presidents get an annuity of $20,000 per year. The President is utilized by the official branch, of the three branches our administration was separated into. This branch comprises of the Executive Office, 14 official offices, and around 75 autonomous offices. Altogether, the official branch has about 3.75 million workers. The official office legitimately serves the president, for example, the President's doctor, secretaries, and various close powerful assistants also, offices. The activity of the official offices is to legitimately oversee the central government, and the autonomous organizations' responsibility is to direct the government programs in numerous fields. The President is the head of this branch. The just jobs the constitution recognizes are those of boss chairman of the country and administrator of its military. Be that as it may, court choices, customs, laws, and different advancements have incredibly extended the President's obligations and forces (World Book). After these 200 years of advancement, the President's activity can be depicted in seven names: Chief Official, Commander in Chief, Foreign Policy Director, Legislative Leader, Gathering Head, and Chief of State. The first on the president's resume, the Chief Official has four primary obligations: to uphold government laws, create administrative approaches, set up the national spending plan, to designate government authorities. The following title a President must fill is Commander in Chief. To do this, the President is expected to protect the nation during war-time and to keep it solid during peacetime (Bernstein,11). Just the president

Paper on “Night” by Elie Wisel Free Essays

Elie’s Spiritual Journey In Elie Wisel’s Night, Elie experiences a mind boggling profound change. In the start of his book he is endeavoring to turn into the most dedicated Jew he can. This is represented by his â€Å"crying in light of the fact that something inside me wanted to cry† as he was supplicating in the sanctuary. We will compose a custom article test on Paper on â€Å"Night† by Elie Wisel or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now His commitment to Judism is likewise appeared by his longing to contemplate the Kabbalah. At the point when his dad disheartens him from considering this â€Å"world of mysticism† Elie starts searching for his own instructor, and he discovers Moishe the Beadle. Moishe helps Elie see why he supplicates and direct him in the instructing of the Kabbalists. One of the principal times Elie’s confidence is tried is the point at which he initially gets to Birkenau and sees the crematorium. There individuals are expecting demise yet his dad says â€Å"May His name be commended and blessed. † Elie gets distraught at his dad for saying this, in light of the fact that Elie had a desire from his dedication to Judism. He hopes to have a long existence with insignificant preliminaries because of his commitment. In any case, when his confidence is tried he says: â€Å"For the first occasion when I felt outrage ascending inside me. For what reason would it be a good idea for me to bless His name? The Almighty and horrible Master of the Universe, decided to be quiet. What was there to say thanks to him for? † This shows he is frustrated in God. The Bible says â€Å"give thanks in all conditions, for this is God’s will for you in Christ Jesus† (1 Thessalonians 5:18) Elie’s disposition isn't grateful and in any event, abhorring. We see that Elie likewise feels like God has left Elie and the Jews. In part 4 a little youngster is swung from the hangman's tree. As he slips all through death somebody says: â€Å"For God’s purpose, where is God? † Elie says â€Å"Where He is? This is the place †hanging here from this hangman's tree. † Elie now trusts God is dead or has disregarded His kin. His reaction shows that he has started to thoroughly dismiss God, and even inquiry himself just as his confidence. Elie is disturbed that God is permitting the Jews to be butchered. â€Å"You have double-crossed (the detainees) permitting them to be tormented, butchered, gassed, and consumed! What do they do? They ask before you! They acclaim your name! † This announcement from section 5, during Rosh Hashanah, shows that Elie is certainly distraught at God for allowing the Holocaust to holocaust. The following two sections show how Elie’s confidence has been broken. â€Å"I realized my wrongdoings lamented the Almighty so I argued for pardoning. . . In any case, presently I no longer argued for anything. . . I was the informer, God the denounced. † These two proclamations uncover that Elie feels the intensity of the Holy Spirit to request absolution, yet he overlooks it. He picks rather to denounce God and to shut out His voice. Regardless of every one of these occasions when he has denied God, Elie still starts his Nobel Peace Prize discourse with a petition. He proceeds to discuss a little kid (him) that has risen up out of the Kingdom of Night, the Holocaust. He said â€Å"A youthful Jewish kid found the Kingdom of Night. I recall his bewilderment, I recollect his anguish. Everything happened so quick. Elie likewise discusses his Judism. He tells everybody that his â€Å"First reaction is to Jewish feelings of dread. † He needs everybody to realize that he won't hold on as his kin are abused. As he attracts his discourse to a nearby he says, â€Å"Should Israel lose yet one war, it would mean her end and our ow n also. In any case, I have confidence. † This remark just as his whole discourse, shows that Elie has, maybe, reestablished his confidence in God, notwithstanding his sharpness. In any case, just God knows his heart. Just God recognizes what that young man crying in the sanctuary experienced, as he went through the Kingdom of Night. Step by step instructions to refer to Paper on â€Å"Night† by Elie Wisel, Essay models

Blog Archive B-School Chart of the Week Which Business School Has the Most Generous Alumni

Blog Archive B-School Chart of the Week Which Business School Has the Most Generous Alumni Although quantifying a school’s profile certainly does not tell you everything, it can sometimes be helpful in simplifying the many differences between the various MBA programs. Each week, we bring you a chart to help you decide which of the schools strengths speak to you. The size and depth of a school’s alumni base may be important to you as you seek to break into specific fields or certain regions/countries. However, as Poets and Quants  notes, other factors may merit consideration, too, and alumni giving could be an indicator of satisfaction with the MBA experience long after graduation. The chart below shows the differences in total size of alumni networks for each school, in addition to the number of alumni who made donations in 2010. Although Dartmouth Tuck clearly has far fewer alumni than, say, Harvard Business School or Chicago Booth, a much higher relative percentage of alumni made donations to Tuck in 2010â€"a full 68%. Paul Danos, Tucks dean, views the impressive number of donations as “a long-term endorsement of the general way we educate.” Other important factors with respect to a schools alumni network might include whether the network has a specialized industry niche, a certain geographically specific base, particular recruiting strengths or highly active community members. Share ThisTweet B-School Charts

Designing A Inventory System For Nike - 1407 Words

My company, partners with businesses and present management systems that help companies become more efficient. Recently, I had the privilege of attending a Microsoft conference that introduced Nike’s Chairman, President and CEO, Mark Parker as the guest speaker. Apparently, due to, demand fluctuations and stiff competition, Nike has an abundance of excess inventory. Upon hearing this startling revelation, I immediately thought about the Adapting Supply Chains to Tough Times, case study I read the other day. However, the problem that I discovered with Nike is that it has multiple locations, that all have different inventory needs. For instance, the Air Jordan X Retro â€Å"OVO† might sell well on the west coast, but not as well in the east. Therefore, my dilemma was to incorporate components of inventory management that would fit every location. Obviously, I had already begun envisioning an effective inventory system for Nike before being asked to do so. Luckily, after the conference, Microsoft supplied lunch, which was a Godsend because my stomach was emitting the most embarrassing sounds one would ever hear. At any rate, since I have a good relationship with Bill Gates, I was assigned a seat at his table. By chance, Mark Parker was also assigned to the table, as a matter of fact, he sat right next to me. Clearly, it would not be proper etiquette for me to start discussing business after introducing myself. Therefore, I took the time to learn a bit more about Mark. First, heShow MoreRelatedDesigning A Inventory System For Nike1390 Words   |  6 PagesMy company, partners with businesses and present systems that contributes to their overall effectiveness. Recently, I had the privilege of attending a Microsoft conference that introduced Nike’s Chairman, President and CEO, Mark Parker as the guest speaker. Apparently, due to, demand fluctuations and stiff competition, Nike possess an abundance of excess inventory. Upon hearing this startli ng revelation, I immediately thought about the Adapting Supply Chains to Tough Times, case study I read theRead Morescope of technology Essay932 Words   |  4 Pagesmaterials; third, technological products or artifacts; fourth, end, intention or functions; fifth, background knowledge; and lastly, social context in which the technology is designed, developed, used, and disposed of, and the artifact that I will apply is Nike. In Children of Invention Revisited by Winston, he describes technology in three different ways in reference to the artifact I selected. First, Winston clearly defines technology as â€Å"the organization of knowledge, people, and things to accomplishRead MoreNike Marketing Strategy Review1044 Words   |  5 PagesMurad Tahirov Marketing Spotlight-Nike The Nike story begins with its founder, running enthusiast Phil Knight. In 1962, Knight started Blue Ribbon Sports, the precursor to Nike. At the time, the athletic shoe industry was dominated by two German companies, Adidas and Puma. Knight recognized a neglected segment of serious athletes whose specialized needs were not being addressed. The concept was simple: Provide high-quality running shoes designed especially for athletes by athletes. KnightRead MoreThe Main Influences On Operation Management1112 Words   |  5 PagesOperations management is an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing, and controlling the process of production and redesigning business operations in the production of goods or services. The main influences on operation management include; ï  ¶ Globalisation ï  ¶ Technology ï  ¶ Quality expectation ï  ¶ Cost-based competition ï  ¶ Government policies ï  ¶ Legal regulation ï  ¶ Environmental sustainability ï  ¶ Cooperate social responsibility (CSR) Globalisation Globalisation is the change in a businessRead MoreOperation Management: Chapter 7 – Capacity and Facilities Design1516 Words   |  7 Pagesactivities, processes, departments, workstations, storage areas, aisles, and common areas within an existing or proposed facility. The basic objective of the layout decision is to ensure a smooth flow of work, material, people and information through the system. We can list five goals of facility layout such as the following: 1. Eliminate wasted or redundant movement We can take Wal-mart as an example. Wal-mart is one company who has a great successful by using process layout. They group similar activitiesRead MoreAnnotated Bibliography On Information Systems9488 Words   |  38 PagesThe Overview of Information Systems Jerry Gonzalez In Chapter 1, it covers up the overview of information systems meaning explaining the differences of computer literacy and information literacy. We know that computer literacy is defined as a person who is very skilled in using microsoft word, excel, powerpoint, outlook, etc. Computers are everywhere among us to use for personal daily lives. They are used for students to do their personal homework, grading for exams, evaluations, and can even canRead MoreWhy Nike Is An International Company2273 Words   |  10 PagesIntroduction Nike is an international company which specializes in designing, making and selling athletic footwear. The company specializes in designing high-quality products which are used worldwide by many people. Apart from being used in athletic and basketball games, the company s products are used as casual wears. Apart from making and selling footwear, the company also offers a wide range of services to its customers and also sells both equipment and their accessories. The company has well-organizedRead MoreThe Green Supply Chain Management1533 Words   |  7 Pagestrending in various organisations involved in supply chain business. The green supply chain management is the process of combination of environment protection and day to day supply chain management, including its different parts like material sourcing, designing of product, selection of material, manufacturing process and delivery of the final item to the customers. Green supply chain management relates to manufacturing wide ran ge of products from or recyclable and destroyable products. This is similar toRead MoreNike Erp2332 Words   |  10 PagesCase Study: Nike ERP Implementation Nike shoe division grew and spread rapidly around the globe from its inception in 1972 through 1998. Yet in 1999, Nike realized that in order to keep up with the growing demands of their products, and specifically their Air Jordan line of basketball shoes, they would have to make changes in the way they forecasted and projected demands and distributed their products. Eventually it was decided that these changes would take place in the form of the implementationRead MoreNike Brand equity2888 Words   |  12 PagesIntroductionNike Corporation was incorporated in 1968. In their thirty-four year history, Nike has primarily been in the business of designing, developing, and marketing athletic footwear, attire, equipment and accessories, Ð ° lot of companies go out on a limb when it comes to business decision or management strategies with Nike Corporation. Nike is Ð ° powerful company. Nike Corporation is a well managed company in Ð ° striking industry, the company has a strong brand image, and they are effectively

The Effects Of Low Socioeconomic Status On Juvenile...

Ashley Crutcher Professor William Franks Soc 333 Juvenile Delinquency 18 November 2014 Effects Low Socioeconomic Status Has on Juvenile Delinquency What effects does a low socioeconomic status have on juvenile delinquency? Can these effects be explained by one or more of the four theories studied within the field of Juvenile Delinquency? There are many correlations of a low socioeconomic status within juvenile delinquency. Things such as environmental influences, poverty stricken areas and even traits such as IQ or a low verbal IQ are correlated with low socioeconomic status and delinquency. Each of these factors can be explained by these four theories; Strain theory, Social Learning theory, Control theory, and Labeling theory. Studies have been conducted to prove that there is a relationship between low IQ and juvenile delinquency. Hirschi and Hindeland conducted studies in 1977 which concluded that juveniles who engage in delinquent behaviors tend to have lower IQs. (Terrie E. Moffitt) In the past, this correlation has been explained by the assumption that children w ith lower IQs also have bad decision making skills. Therefore, these children with low IQs are not able to ascertain the difference between right and wrong. This inadvertently led these children to make bad decisions. Due to the relationship between low socioeconomic status and low IQs there is a correlation between this relationship and juvenile delinquency. The relationship between low IQ and juvenileShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Labeling And Variations In Delinquency1796 Words   |  8 PagesLabeling and Variations in Delinquency In recent years, longitudinal data has been used to make comparisons between youth who are formally labeled and those who are not formally labeled. Investigating the relationship between labeling and delinquent history has served as the common strategy to make these comparisons. Due to its disruptive nature, it is logical to conclude that contact with the juvenile justice system would be the most devastating for first-time offenders who have been longer embeddedRead MoreFactors Contributing For Criminal Activity Among African Americans1587 Words   |  7 Pagesexperience between the two cities, Ernest W. Burgess, was one of the scholars selected to investigate what was taking place in Chicago communities. Early on, Burgess investigated the seven wards of Chicago where he found that there were high levels of delinquency in the fourth ward which had poor home conditions, poverty, and bad influence on the city’s youth (Gabbidon,2015). As stated in, Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime by Shaun L Gabbidon, Social Disorganization is the breakdown in equilibriumRead MoreEducation, Socioeconomic Status and Social Dilemmas: Three Criminal Theories 2617 Words   |  11 Pageseducation, socioeconomic status and social dilemmas in respect to incarc eration amongst juveniles. Specifically, the study intends to answer the following research questions: Does education, socioeconomic status and social dilemmas affect incarceration among Juveniles in America? How can education, socioeconomic status and social problems decrease the rate of incarceration among Juveniles in America? What are some environmental factors that predetermine criminal outcome amongst juveniles? Many questionsRead MoreA Comparison of Conflict and Labeling Theory in the Context of Youth Gangs1531 Words   |  7 Pagesthe juvenile population creating and joining gangs. Research indicates that youth gang membership exists in contemporary north America (Bernburg et al. 2006; aLilly et al. 2011; Maclure and Sotelo 2004; Sims 1997; Wiley et al. 2013; Yoder et al. 2003). This paper will examine the factors associated with youth gang membership using Karl Marxs conflict theory and labeling theory in comparison. Although conflict theory helps explain why a troublesome economy and coming from a low-socioeconomic statusRead MoreThe Role Of Family Structure And Youth Essay1678 Words   |  7 Pageseveryone within that family or household. According to Kierkus and Hewitt (2009)â€Å"Children raised in traditional, two-parent families experience a lower risk of delinquency than children from alternative family types† (p. 123). This information ascertains a definite relationship between family structure and youth engaging in delinquency. Why is it that certain youths from traditional families engage in less delinquent behaviors than youth in non-traditional families? A compilation of data fromRead MoreThe Problem Of Recidivism Today s Society And How It Is Hitting Extremely High Numbers1289 Words   |  6 Pagesrecommended that program development efforts focus on continuity of program content, increased emphasis on family interventions, and substantial enhancements to aftercare. (C. Parker). Abuse/ Neglect: When studying the Adolescent Neglect, Juvenile Delinquency and the Risk of Recidivism, It became quit clear that child abuse gathers and attracts more attention in the public eye than any other child issue, when it comes to child maltreatment. (Ryan, Joseph P) Child abuse is also one of the most reportedRead MoreFactors That Cause The Increase Rate Of Juvenile Delinquency Essay1666 Words   |  7 Pagesincrease rate of Juvenile delinquencies. A survey research design will be used. Simple random sampling technique will be used while questionnaire and interview schedule will be necessary data collection instruments. This project will use the findings to know how to reduce the increasing rates of juvenile delinquency and also how to improve the current juvenile institutions available in order to be more productive. Juvenile Delinquency Introduction Juvenile delinquency is a situationRead MoreIt can be nearly impossible to narrow down the causes of delinquency in youth as the factors do2000 Words   |  8 PagesIt can be nearly impossible to narrow down the causes of delinquency in youth as the factors do vary from adolescent to adolescent. There has been extensive research into family factors and how they relate to delinquency. Researchers have looked in several theories and models to specific attributes of gender, socioeconomic status, race, and the family structure itself. Definitions †¢ Juvenile delinquency: conduct by a juvenile characterized by antisocial behavior that is beyond parental control andRead MoreIs There A Strong Relationship Between Poverty And Juvenile Delinquency?1655 Words   |  7 PagesStrong Relationship Between Poverty and Juvenile Delinquency? There is a lot of research in the world on whether or not poverty and juvenile delinquency are correlated. Of what I’ve seen, the studies suggest that there is, in fact, a relationship between them. Poverty is a serious issue, and it not only affects the people living in poverty, but it also affects the people around poverty-ridden neighborhoods. This study will address the issue of poverty on juveniles. Moreover, it will unveil the problemRead MoreThe Family Adjustment And Adaptation Response Model1679 Words   |  7 Pagesyouth delinquency and substance use among African American youth (Voisin et al., 2016). While this an important finding, more research is needed to better illuminate the pathways that mediate direct relationship between parental distress and youth delinquency and substance use, which is the primary aim of the current study. Substance use and delinquency among African American youth Illuminating malleable pathways that may link parental stress to youth delinquency and substance use among low-income

Essay about Modern Photograph and Realism - 946 Words

In 1979 Stephen Shore, Merced River, Yosemite National Park,† 1930 Walker Evans, Factory street in Amsterdam, New York,† and in 1941 Dorothea Lange, Road on the Great White Plains,† these three photographers transformed their landscape photographs into their own distinctive significance through the expression of realism, a movement in modern photography. Shore transforms a common place to an escape, Evans documents the effects of one of the most important historical periods in American social history and Lange uses her photography as a tool for political change. Although they all embodied their photograph with their own significance, they dont share the same motives. In 1979 Stephen Shores coolly detailed photograph, Merced River,†¦show more content†¦This image almost looks like an alley. Due to the wet glossy floors you can tell it was previously raining. The first thing to catch your attention is the long road receding infinitely, leading your eyes from the foreground to the background creating maximum depth of field like in Shores photo. Instead of trees fading into mountains we see buildings fading into trees. Evans captures the differing building types. However, there is a repetition in windows. The stone building echoes the stone road. The power lines seem to unite the two sides of the streets together. The third building to the left is half black and half white, which creates strong contrast. The building creates a subtle shadow on each side of the stone road leaving the middle of the road highlighted by diffused sun light. The background also creates contrast as the dark trees overlap the light sky. Unlike Stephen Shores use of color to project happiness, love, and freedom, Evans photo is black and white, projecting loneliness, emptiness, and hopelessness. Do to the absence of human presence; this quiet image signifies solitude and abandonment. It is evident that most of these buildings are factories. However, if there are no signs of workers, the photo signifies that something so bad happened here that everyone fled and abandoned the place. With this photo, Evans does not try to persuade a point of view; instead he documents the truth, representing social realism. An artistic movement in modernShow MoreRelatedComparing Gustave Caillebotte and Edgar Degas1215 Words   |  5 PagesHowever, his works were more realistic compared to other members of the group. His works and style belonged to a realism school, despite his impressionist being influenced mostly by friends. His style, although borrowed from varies sources, did not remain constant. He was seen more often as dynamic, doing his works based on the Degas camp of rich –colored realism while, at other times, he shared the impressionist optical truth. His main themes were based on family and domesticRead MoreJohannes Vermeer And Albert Bierstadt1398 Words   |  6 PagesDutchman, Johannes Vermeer was born in the year 16 32 and passed away in 1675. Over his lifetime Vermeer used a style of painting that causing modern day historians and art lovers to struggle to figure out how he painted such realistic scenes that mimicked photographs. His style combined many pictorial depth cues while maintaining a strong sense of realism throughout the relatively few paintings he produced. Next is Prussian artist Albert Bierstadt, who was born in the year 1830 and passed away inRead MoreImpact Of Photography On The Art World996 Words   |  4 PagesDegas best references the aspects, the ideas and the approaches that artists and the art movements have made. Many artists, particularly painters in the time of the introduction of photography were reluctant and despised the idea of using the then modern form while some, such as Degas embraced and found the strangeness of fixed motion to compliment his sensitivity as a painter in the late 1800’s. Scharf’s Art and Photography commented on how Degas described his use of photographic material, writingRead MoreThe Great Depression Through The Artist s Eyes1508 Words   |  7 Pagespaper will analyze four pieces of artwork representing the Great Depression through the artist’s eyes. Artistic styles will be explored along with discussion of trade and exchange as depicted from the artwork. Regionalism is an American realist modern art movement popular during the 1930s. Artists during this art movement shunned the city and the rapidly developing technological advances, dubbed the Age of Progress, to focus on rural life instead (Artinthepicture). The Regionalists view was toRead MorePhotography And The Invention Of Photography911 Words   |  4 Pagesrecognized for revolutionizing photography. Through its visual appeal, call of emotion, and cutting edge composite imaging techniques, Pictorialist photography shook America to its core, and should be regarded as the most influential artistic movement in modern history. Pictorialist photography is enjoyable to look at due to the impressionist feel many photographers used to capture audience attention. The 1890’s through the 1920’s saw the rise of the American Pictorial Movement, a dynamic time that saw starkRead MoreInvention Of The Camera And How It Revolutionized History1243 Words   |  5 Pagesto document everything from family portraits, social injustice, sporting events, world news, expressions of joy and sorrow, and hundreds of monumental moments. The camera has given man the power to reveal the truth visually. Throughout history photographs have made enormous impacts on social consciousness and ultimately shaped public opinion on many pressing issues in society. Although photography is often considered a casual pastime, the invention of the camera has contributed to many aspects ofRead More James Agee and Walker Evans Essay1390 Words   |  6 Pagesproduce â€Å"an article on cotton tenantry in the United States, in the form of a photographic and verbal record of the daily living and environment of an average white family of tenant farmers,† (IX). James Agee and Walker Evans set out to write and photograph an article for a magazine, and ended up experimenting with the form of the novel itself. James Agee was born in 1909 in Knoxville, Tennessee, but was in the urban middle class, so he had no experience with cotton farming. When he went to researchRead MoreAnalysis Of Hockey Game By Andy Warhol1262 Words   |  6 Pagespictures and captions trying to capture an image that had true meaning to the game of hockey but also showing an uniqueness of the concepts of the visual culture. This visual analysis will demonstrate specific concepts including the visual power, the realism and the perspective and the visual technologies with explain the image of the â€Å"Hockey Game† by Andy Warhol. Viewing this image on my computer was difficult to analyze as the image captures a specific time during a hockey game that may be comparedRead MoreMiddlesex By Jeffery Eugenides Tell The Story Of Cal And1343 Words   |  6 PagesEugenides tell the story of Cal and his ancestors. Through this story Eugenides implements science in order to inform the readers what made Cal what he is. Science adds a shroud of realism to hide that the story is nonfiction. Eugenides adds more complexity to his work by arguing the relevance of science in the modern world. He doesn’t endorse science completely because he also critiques science for its lack of compassion when it comes to treating people with unfortunate genetic mutations such asRead MoreIwt Task 1 Essay1698 Words   |  7 PagesRealism versus Pop Art In this life, there are many forms of art or art â€Å"movements† to speak of. How we interpret art is a very subjective thing. What a person sees and feels when looking at art greatly depends on their upbringing, their values, and even their mood at the time of viewing. Could something dark and lacking color be art? What about a comic strip in the newspaper or the billboard down the street? Again, interpretation and taste in art is individual. I elected to explore into the two

Are Children Smarter Because of the Internet free essay sample

For most children and teenagers, using the Internet has joined watching television and talking on the phone in the repertoire of typical behavior. In fact, 87 percent of 12- to 17-year-olds are now online, according to a 2005 Pew Research Center report. Thats a 24 percent increase over the previous four years, leading parents and policymakers to worry about the effect access to worlds of informationand misinformationhas on children. Psychologists are only beginning to answer that question, but a study led by Michigan State University psychologist Linda Jackson, PhD, showed that home Internet use improved standardized reading test scores. Other researchers have found that having the Internet at home encourages children to be more self-directed learners. We had the same question for television decades ago, but I think the Internet is more important than television because its interactive, says Jackson. Its 24/7 and its ubiquitous in young peoples lives. The positive effects of Internet use appear especially pronounced among poor children, say researchers. Unfortunately, these children are also the least likely to have home computers, which some experts say may put them at a disadvantage. The interesting twist here is that the very children who are most likely to benefit from home Internet access are the ones least likely to have it, says Jackson. Its a classic digital divide issue. Point, click and read In her research, published in a 2006 Developmental Psychology (Vol. 42, No. 3, pages 429-435) special section on Internet use, Jackson studied 140 urban children as part of HomeNetToo, a longitudinal field study designed to assess the effects of Internet use in low-income families. Most of the child participants were African American and around 13 years old; 75 percent lived in single-parent households with an average annual income of $15,000 or less. The children were also underperforming in school, scoring in the 30th percentile on standardized reading tests at the beginning of the study. Jackson and her colleagues provided each family with a home computer and free Internet access. The researchers automatically and continuously recorded the childrens Internet use, and participants completed periodic surveys and participated in home visits. They found that children who used the Internet more had higher scores on standardized reading tests after six months, and higher grade point averages one year and 16 months after the start of the study than did children who used it less. More time spent reading, given the heavily text-based nature of Web pages, may account for the improvement. Jackson also suggests that there may be yet-undiscovered differences between reading online and reading offline that may make online reading particularly attractive to children and teenagers. Whats unique about the Internet as compared with traditional ways of developing academic performance skills is that its more of a fun environment, she says. Its a play tool. You can learn without any pain. Beneficial academic outcomes may just be a coincidental effect of having a good time. Whats more, online reading may enhance skills that traditional book reading doesnt tap, says Donald Leu,PhD, the John and Maria Neag-Endowed Chair in Literacy and Tech nology at the University of Connecticut and director of the New Literacies Research Lab. Hes found no substantial association between online reading comprehension performance and performance on state reading assessments, as described in a 2005 report submitted to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory/Learning Point Associates (available online at www. newliteracies. uconn. edu/ncrel_files/FinalNCRELReport. pdf). Thats because online reading takes different skills than traditional book reading, he says. Online reading relies heavily on information-location skills, including how to use search engines, as well as information-synthesis and critical evaluation skills. The studies that just look at learning fail to recognize that you have to have these online reading comprehension strategies in place before you can really learn very much with Internet information, says Leu. Leu is looking for ways to improve adolescents Internet reading comprehension through a three-year, U. S. Department of Education-funded research project, coled by reading education expert David Reinking, PhD, Eugene T. Moore Professor of Teacher Education at Clemson University. About half of the children the team studies dont use search engines, Leu says, preferring to zuse an ineffective dot com strategy. For example, if they are searching for information on the Iraq War, they will enter the URL iraqwar. com. This often leads to ad-filled trap sites that provide incorrect or irrelevant information, says Leu. And, the 50 percent of children who do use search engines use a click and look strategy of opening each returned site instead of reading the search engine synopsis. If a site appears as the children imagine it should, they believe its reliable, he says. Leu and colleagues asked 50 top reading seventh-graders from school districts in rural South Carolina and urban Connecticut to assess the reliability of a slickly designed Web site on the mythical endangered Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus. Though the site is a known hoax, all but one child claimed it was scientifically valid. And even after the researchers informed the participants that the site was a joke, about half of the children were adamant that it was indeed truthful, says Leu. Self-directed learners To help children winnow the tree octopus sites from legitimate information, they must develop online reading comprehension skills. These skills are particularly crucial because other researchers have found that children go online to clarify what theyre being taught in school. Instead of waiting for a tutor or someone to help them, they are very proactive in seeking help for themselves, says Kallen Tsikalas, director of research and learning services for Computers for Youth (CFY), a national educational nonprofit organization. Home Internet use during the middleschool years appears to empower students and reengage them in learning at an age when their academic achievement traditionally drops, adds Tsikalas. Indeed, 70 percent of students in CFYs program consistently say that having a home computer helps them become more curious and feel more confident, and nearly two-thirds of students report working harder in school because they have a home computer, the organization reports. Though researchers have found encouraging evidence that Internet use can help children stay interested in school and develop reading skills, its not an easy area to study, say experts.

Leadership and Vision free essay sample

Having a clear, distinct vision and being able to set goals to achieve this vision are two of the most significant attributes a leader can possess. A leader must first determine who their vision might apply to, whether it be a particular group of people or the entire organization as a whole. Often, in lower management, a leader might need to organize a vision and goals for a small group of direct report, as opposed to a larger overall company vision. One of the most difficult parts of a vision is being able to communicate it to those employees around you or below you, and getting them to take the vision personally and dedicate themselves to achieving it as well. In the text â€Å"Leading and Leadership† by Don Clark, the author agrees with the important task managers have in convincing other team members of the importance of the goal, stating â€Å"Leadership is influencing others to truly WANT to achieve a goal† Don Clark, author of the aforementioned text, states three main ways he proposes you inspire your employees: Be passionate, get your employees involved in the decision making process, and know what your organization is about. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership and Vision or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In these three ways, you can present yourself as a leader who genuinely cares about the team as a whole and can effectively execute a plan to achieve the vision and mission stated. Allowing each employee to become involved in the decision making process means determining goals and objectives for each employee or department. This becomes extremely important in that it allows each member of the team to feel they are pulling the necessary weight to help achieve the vision. Even more beneficial to managers and leaders is the concept that â€Å"lower-level managers who desire more challenge generally become more committed and satisfied when they are given the opportunity to tackle significant problems. † (Kreitner, 2008) The feeling of unity and high morale and allows each team member to realize their worth. When determining goals, a leader has the ability to delegate tasks to other individuals and allow them to receive recognition for their abilities and strengths, which relates directly to Herzberg’s motivational factors or satisfiers. Once a leader has established goals and objectives, they must consistently maintain the success of the operation and guarantee the tasks are being completed to the advantage of the overall vision. During this, a leader has the opportunity to coach their team and genuinely show their ability to perform and succeed. Often, an employee wants to know that their manager is willing to perform the same tasks they have handed down, or that they were at some point able to do so. For example, in a sales environment, if a member of the sales production team knows their manager has no sales experience, only management experience, they lack faith in the manager as a leader. The significance of a vision and clear goal-setting cannot be underestimated for any organization. A manager and leader who has a clear vision for themselves, their team and the organization as a whole is likely to be more successful and better able to handle hardship if it arises. The team will be more closely knit and able to communicate clearly about the task and objectives they are assigned. Having a distinct vision, even if it is simple for yourself and your career, instills confidence in your abilities and demeanor, and is one of the easiest ways to attain a following amongst employees. References Clark, D. R. (2004). Leading and Leadership. Retrieved October 1, 2011 from http://www. nwlink. com/~donclark/leader/leadled. html Kreitner, Robert. Foundations of management: basics and best practices. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. , 2008. Print.

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack

Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack Rome with a Christian Face? Early Byzantine Art 330–527 The discussion of Byzantine art represents a challenge for the researcher. The main issue about Byzantine art is that it demonstrates incompliance with the traditional chronologically-based methodologies of art. Standardly perceived as the art of â€Å"religious icons†, Byzantine art can be defined as the religious art spanning a period of thousand years from 330 to 1453 and centering in the Christian society of Constantinople (Cormack 2).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In a way, Byzantine art is timelessness: Christian themes are constant and unchanging throughout its periods. The change and development occurred via new forms of expression and new subjects. The key feature of Byzantine art is that it is mostly religious. The Bible was the main source of inspiration, and mo st objects of art created at that time were considered sacred. Constantinople was the place that played a dominated role in the history of Byzantine art. It was brought to glory as a large metropolis according to the ambitious plan of emperor Constantine. Kilometers of protective walls and aqueducts built by 330 made Constantinople an impregnable stronghold that attracted new citizens by its broad spacious streets. Due to many disastrous fires and gales, the city changed its face repeatedly throughout history, and gradually gained the reputation of a â€Å"collage city† (Cormack 9). Masterpieces were brought to Constantinople from all over Greece and Asia Minor. But the unique feature of Byzantine art proper was that it never used the classical Greek works of art as a sample for imitation. Although Constantinople is mostly associated with the life of Christian society, the city was not established as Christian initially. Started as a typically Roman base with a hippodrome for chariot races, it gradually evolved into a Christian shrine, when a vast collection of holy relics was brought from Jerusalem and St Sophia Cathedral was designed as the center of the Christian empire. Therefore, Christian art as such did not originate in Constantinople. It flourished already in the third century all around the Roman empire, which can be illustrated by the wall paintings in the mud-brick houses of Syria (Cormack 13). The schematic manner of presentation in those paintings is rather traditional. But the innovatory issues are traced in the subject matter which is Christian: the paintings feature motifs of death and salvation from the Old and the New Testament. The Christians of the time used art as a way of communicating their main ideas on life after death. Consequently, scenes including Jonah image were especially popular because Jonah’s rescue from the wale’s inside reminded of Christ’s resurrection from sepulcher (Cormack 14).Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The early art in Byzantium preserved the images of imperial Rome, as well as continued developing the Christian traditions. Marble sarcophagi, reliefs, and statues were still parts of the city landscape. However, in the sixths century the art of sculpture experienced an overall decline, and marble was thus often recycled for building new Christian churches. Apart from marble, such materials were used as stone, brick, and wood. This diversity of materials was made possible by the breadth of Byzantine geographical borders: the empire spanned the territories of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestina, Egypt, North Africa, Italy, and much of the Balkans and Greece (Cormack 17). But this geographical variety was centralized and governed by the city of Constantinople which was the symbol of Byzantine power and control. The location of the Byzantine empire bot h in the east and in the west provided for the specific marriage of different traditions in Byzantine art. Such blend represents a stumbling block for art historians, since the issue of whether Byzantine art is separate from the western style or it developed according to standards common for both. The multifacetedness of Byzantine art makes it difficult to classify the art into self-contained periods. And yet, an attempt to classify early Byzantine art can be made basing on the key historical events: the rise of Constantinople under emperor Constantine (324–337), the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian (527–565), and the iconoclastic policy of emperor Leo III (717–741) (Cormack 18). In the difficult task of surveying the diversity of Byzantine art, the researchers face two extremes. On the one hand, there has been an immense loss of historical material due to natural disasters and hostility acts. On the other hand, the variety of the remaining mate rial may puzzle an unprepared observer by the kaleidoscope of time and places it covers. From this discrepancy emerges a problematic issue: â€Å"whether to treat all the different media and materials that Byzantine art employs together or separately?† (Cormack 21–22). Tracing each branch of Byzantine art in chronological order appears a complex problem, since many artists worked with several types of material simultaneously. In addition, old and new art was equally displayed in Byzantine reality, and therefore Byzantine art demonstrates a unique quality of continuity combining tradition and innovation. Demonstrative of the balance of continuity and change in Byzantine art are two samples of different time periods. The earlier sample is a â€Å"vast monumental mosaic†, the later one is a â€Å"small portable icon† (Cormack 23). At first sight, both of them appear to depict the same subject - Christian saints in heaven after their death. Saints are a univ ersal topic for Christian art, but the choice of specific saints for depiction may point out significant differences in the topic of the artwork.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Byzantine Art by Robin Cormack specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Certain visual clues allow for distinguishing the two samples from each other. The enormous mosaic in the dome of the church is largely damaged, and the preserved part features seventeen figures. Despite the fact that the saints are named, there is no visible clue as to the logics of their arrangement. The central position in the mosaic was probably occupied by the figure of Christ surrounded by flying angels. An analysis of the possible thematic scope prompts the idea that the subject matter of the mosaic could be the Second Coming. This powerful image produced an unquestionable visual effect on the early Christians and signified the glory and triumph of the Christia n church over the ideas of the antiquity in the late fifth – early sixth century (Cormack 29–30). Representing a later period in Byzantine art, the small icon is â€Å"a work of art of a different form [†¦] and function† (Cormack 30). Similar to the mosaic in its subject matter, the icon represents a group of saints surrounding Christ. In contrast to the mosaic, Christ is depicted not at the moment of the Second Coming but as a baby sitting in his mother’s lap. The scene represented in the icon can be identified as the Sunday of Orthodoxy. Along with other figures, it features â€Å"iconophile champions† who struggled in 726–843 for recognition of icons as a symbol of the Orthodox church (Cormack 32). In this sense, the icon presents the topic of true and firm belief in the core values of the Orthodox church. In the Shadow of St. Sophia Byzantine Art in the Sixth Century and Its Aftermath 527–680 Despite the fact that the develop ment of Byzantine art may seem quite gradual, there existed several turning points that marked significant change. In the sixth century such crucial event occurred on the Christmas Day 537, when emperor Justinian dedicated the renovated church of St Sophia. Destroyed by fire in 532, the church was restored in record short period and demonstrated a qualitatively new interpretation of church symbolism. The new St Sophia was proclaimed â€Å"a holy place, a house of prayer, the assembly of the people, the body of Christ, [†¦] an earthly heaven [that] represents the Crucifixion, Burial, and Resurrection of Christ† (Cormack 37). Symbolic of so many Christian values, St Sophia was the heart of Constantinople and a place for public and state contemplation of God. In its interiors, scenes and events from the New Testament were reenacted and thus provided a powerful historical link and revival of the Biblical narratives. The peculiarity of St Sophia interior of the time was that, unlike the latter trends in decoration, it did not contain any figurative mosaics. Rather, the presence of God was visualized by more objective and universal symbols: the sign of cross was repeated over and again in golden colors. There could be several reasons for such simple yet efficient solution. On the one hand, the restoration of St Sophia had to be completed in shortest terms, and avoiding complicated mosaics saved time and effort.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On the other hand, if there had been any figurative images, the viewer’s gaze would stop on each individual scene and not perceive the overall grandeur of the church. St Sophia indeed impresses by its sizes: about 56 meters high, 30 meters wide, and 60 meters long, the building’s nave was much broader than that of a typical Gothic cathedral (Cormack 40). As for the interior decoration of St Sophia, in the sixth century it was characterized by especial lightness and freshness that resulted from absence of heavy figurative mosaics. Only eight porphyry columns were left, and the walls were covered with veined marble. Carved monograms of emperor Justinian and empress Theodora spread all over the colonnades. Although attention was definitely given to details, the moderateness of the embellishment signifies shortness of time for the church restoration. The main decorative function was therefore placed on the sculptural carvings. The attention, effort, and finance invested in the renovation of St Sophia by emperor Justinian emphasize the significant role church played in the political life of the time. After a series of successful military campaigns, the Byzantine empire stretched out immensely and was in need of powerful controlling mechanisms, of which morale was the key factor. Following the experience of the Romans, Justinian realized that not only administrative and legal system should be universal for all, but also the common religious creed mattered. Thus the stronghold of Christianity as a guiding religion for the empire was emphasized in the newly revived St Sophia in Constantinople. With the emergence of St Sophia as the central church which outshone the others by its splendor and grandeur, there still remained the tradition of pilgrimage to holy places. One of the most significant locations personally for emperor Justinian was the church of the Archangel Michael at Germia in Asia Minor (Cormack 45). It contained a grand ivory carving of Archa ngel Michael, presumably Justinian’s patron throughout his life. The prayer on the carving symbolized the emperor’s humility in face of the divine power. To commemorate his deceased wife Theodora, emperor Justinian built another masterpiece of Byzantine art, a fortified monastery of St Catherine on the Egyptian mount of Sinai. A popular destination for pilgrims already in the fourth century, mount Sinai was an ideal place for monks to retire from the vanities of the world and spend time in prayer and worship of God. The Sinai church, a wooden-roofed basilica, was surrounded by high walls and guarded by armed garrison. As a symbol of divine protections, multiple crosses were carved in the walls. The interior of the Sinai church itself was changed with the time, but in the sixth century it was mostly dominated by carvings and mosaics. The latter depicted, inter alia, the biblical events mostly related to mount Sinai: Moses at the Burning Bush and Moses receiving the Tabl ets of the Law (Cormack 50). Bright colors and gold in which the images were performed nearly blinded the visitor and thus produced the maximum impact and inspired the feelings of profound veneration. The significance of Justinian’s rule for development of Byzantine art cannot be overestimated. Together with restoring St Sophia and reinforcing the Sinai monastery, emperor Justinian promoted Byzantine art on the western borders of the Byzantine empire. The location most demonstrative of the emperor’s involvement is the north Italian city of Ravenna. Initially supporting the Arian branch of the Christian religion, the city could boast a spectacular mosaics in the church of S. Apollinare Nuovo. The enormous scale of Biblical events depicted in the mosaics can be imagined by realizing that only a small part of it contained already twenty-six scenes from Christ’s life (Cormack 55). After the 540 conquest of Ravenna by Justinian’s army, the Arian politics of th e city experienced a radical turn. This was also reflected in the religious artworks: the depictions of the previous ruler were removed from S.  Apollinare Nuovo mosaics, and a large group of Orthodox saints was added instead. Another building embodying Byzantine imperial power and reflecting the ambitious aspirations of its rulers was the church of S. Vitale in Ravenna. Housing the relicts of the local martyr Vitalis, the building reflected many of Byzantine art characteristic. On the one hand, the marble columns of the church resembled many of the kind made of the same material in Constantinople. On the other hand, the church of S. Vitale contains powerful images of most influential Byzantine emperor and empress, which adds an additional link between Constantinople and the western borders of the empire. The two mosaics depict emperor Justinian and empress Theodore who had actually never been to Ravenna. But their presence and participation in the liturgy is emphasized by the obj ects they are carrying: Justinian is holding bread and Theodora bears a goblet of wine, which played a crucial role in Orthodox ceremony. Despite of the effort emperor Justinian took to build and maintain the grandeur of his vast empire, his creation did not survive for long. But the consequences of his rule for Byzantine art were significant. The culture of monks flourished; churches and monasteries were generously sponsored and thus survived the crisis of the Dark Ages (Cormack 65). This emergence of monasteries as keepers of the Byzantine culture allowed for efficient replacement of whatever artworks were lost with new ones. A popular medium of expression was found in painted icons, and multiple prescriptions and canons of depiction appeared depending on the view of Christ by the clergy. The large number of icons signifies the transition to a more personal kind of emotional involvement with prayer and worship. The Definition of an Orthodox Christian Empire Byzantine Art 680â€⠀œ843 The peculiarity of studying Byzantine art is connected with the fact that the transformations occurring in art are deeply rooted in the reconsideration of the social functions of art. The situation is further complicated by the issue of especial timelessness of Byzantine artworks and their stylistic ambiguity. Therefore, Byzantine art cannot be considered from position of style change alone. The flowering of religious art in the time of emperor Justinian’s rule can thus be explained by the significant social function performed by Byzantine art of the time. The especial realism of icons in Justinian’s time was called to bring the Biblical meanings and messages closer to the average people. A system of visual and written clues would provide clear hints for even the illiterate to recognize certain saints. The latter would usually possess significant distinctive features or attributes. An especial significance was placed on the way the saints looked at the viewer: th e gaze was by large one of the main composites of the icon and reflected the popular belief about protection from the evil eye (Cormack 77). After emperor Justinian had died, there is observed a decrease in the quantity of artwork. However, the significance of art in everyday life for prayer and instruction. The debatable issue that emerged was that the abundance of icons challenged the authority of the saints and lead to the increasing importance of the icons proper. Gradually, a view was adopted that â€Å"icons were not made by hand† (achieropoietos) but rather appeared miraculously and thus represented the healing powers and protection of Christ (Cormack 77). Among the most outstanding examples of such achieropoietos were the Mandylion of Edessa at Sinai, the mosaic of Christ in the church of Hosios David at Thessaloniki, and the Kamouliana icon of Christ in Cappadocia (Cormack 77–78). One of the situations that had a crucial impact on the development of Byzantine art was the rise and expansion of Islam. Initially taken as just another occurrence of heresy by the Byzantines, Islam actually had much more lasting and deep consequences for Byzantine art. Along with the military confrontation, a surprising blending and cooperation between the two cultures could be observed. One of the demonstrative examples of such cooperation is the mosaic of the Great Mosque at Damascus that uses ornaments similar to those in the Christian Rotunda in Thessaloniki (Cormack 79–80). In addition, the Islamic leaders coined money which closely resembled Byzantine monetary standards. This cultural cooperation was significantly damaged when around 692 emperor Justinian II reformed the design of Byzantine gold nomisma: the obverse featured the face of Christ, while the emperor’s image occupied a secondary position on the reverse (Cormack 80). In reply, all imagery on Islamic coins was substituted by koranic verses. These events first brought the image of Christ in the secular sphere of money. A second version of Byzantine coin was made after Justinian II had recaptured the throne in 705, and Christ was depicted very unconventionally there: without a nimbus and with a very short beard. The two Byzantine coins bore not only a religious message but that of social and political significance. The first one represented a â€Å"distinctive Byzantine Orthodox identity in face of Islam and other rivals†; the second one emphasized Justinian II’s message that â€Å"Byzantium stood for good order in every aspect of life† (Cormack 81). The coins served as signs of national and cultural identification of the Byzantine people. The other situation that entailed grave consequences on the course of Byzantine art of the time was the way the church responded to the changing social and political environment. A determining event occurred in 692 when the Quinisext Council adopted over a hundred canons, most of which defined the furthe r development and social functioning of Byzantine art. Thus, for example, the image of cross was prohibited to be placed on the floor; Christ should be represented not in symbols but in His own form (Cormack 82). Thus, together with a generally positive attitude to icons as significant part of Orthodox Christianity, the Council also demonstrated the need for control over the iconic form and content. It is not difficult to see a political motive underlying such attitude: the orderly life in the Christian Byzantine empire was inseparable from the compliance of Christ’s image to the demands of clear representation. In the situation of increasing state control over the form and content of religious images, a point was reached when counter reaction was quite inevitable. During most of the eighth century and the first half of the ninth century, the art of icon painting was trapped between two contradictive extremes. On the one pole, there were the ideas of iconoclasm that called to destruction of icons. The ideas of iconoclasm were formulated in 754 during the Council of Hieria. Basing on the quote from the Bible, a second commandment given to Moses that disapproved of any graven image, the Council ruled that icons should be announced illegitimate (Cormack 87). Thus they solved the issue of paganism and its residuals in the Christian Byzantium. On the other pole, there were the ideas of iconophiles, who assembled in 787 at the Council of Nicaea and ruled that veneration of icons did not possess an idolatrous nature and therefore could be allowed (Cormack 87). Against this background, a fierce dispute unfolded between the two opposing groups. Unfolding not only in theory, but also in practice, the iconoclastic activities involved destruction of iconic images from such significant object of Byzantine art as St  Sophia in Constantinople and many others. The gold mosaics of St Sophia representing images of Christ and saints were ruthlessly scraped off and icons were taken down (Cormack 94). It should be noted, however, that the attacks of iconoclasts concerned not the art as such but the nature and social purpose. The art continued to be produced but simply in smaller quantities and a different quality. A bright example of iconoclastic art can be found in the church of St  Eirene in Constantinople. After an earthquake in 740, it was restored with mosaics featuring religious texts and the shape of the cross. Thus the main feature of iconoclastic art was avoiding any representation of the image of Christ and saints and substituting those images with the symbol of life-giving cross. Another illustration of iconoclasm in art can be seen in the Khludov Psalter of mid-ninth century. The earliest collection of illustrated psalms, this book contains images symbolic of the prolonged struggle between iconoclasts and iconophiles. This struggle for icons has been the key feature of Christian Orthodox church identity ever since. Developments and Div ersions in the Consolidated Empire Middle Byzantine Art 843–1071 As iconoclasm was defeated in 843, the Byzantine art witnessed a period of revival and restoration of the holy icon. The mutual support between the church and the state was unprecedented: the Byzantine empire was once again restored as a state ruled by order and certainty drawn from firm Christian belief. Such attitude is laid out in emperor Constantine VII’s written piece The Book of Ceremonies (Cormack 105). Monasteries flourished once again as places of active struggle against iconoclasm, and the role of monks in this struggle was radically reconsidered. Although the model for psalm books was still the Khludov Psalter of the ninth century, the pictures of Patriarch Nikephoros as a vigorous iconophile are replaced with those of the monk St Theodore (Cormack 106). Such substitution evidences the shift of significance from patriarch to monk in struggle against iconoclasm. The two hundred years starting fr om mid-ninth centuries are described by art historians as a second â€Å"Golden Age† of Byzantine art, or â€Å"Macedonian Renaissance† (Cormack 108). Those definitions apply mostly to the especially wide range of artworks and techniques created and developed throughout the period. After the dark times of iconoclasm, the innovations of Macedonian Renaissance appeared more as return to the past traditions of Byzantine art. The latter were significantly expanded by new themes and approaches. An example can be seen in the Paris Psalter of mid-tenth century, where - unlike the Khludov Psalter - emphasis is made on the textual contents. Apart from psalms and illustrations to them, the Paris Psalter includes a vast theological and scholarly commentary on the sacred texts (Cormack 109). As the renaissance period was market by return to pre-iconoclastic tradition, it becomes easy to trace connections between the pre- and post-iconoclastic artworks and note the innovations in the latter. Thus, for example, the post-iconoclastic mosaics of Koimisis monastery at Nicaea is performed in a traditional technique. But differently colored materials and differently sized cubes in faces and clothes prompt that it was created already after the struggle against iconoclasm. Another instance of merging tradition and innovation is seen in the art of coinage. The iconoclast emperor Leo III rejected the Christian imagery of money coined by Justinian II and ordered that both the obverse and the reverse of the coin represent a portrait of an emperor. In mid-ninth century, emperor Michael III started coining money with the image of Christ on the obverse. The idea was not a mere allusion to the coin design of Justinian II. Every line copied the old version and the inscription â€Å"Jesus Christ† dispelled any doubt as to the image presented on the coin (Cormack 114). Thus, the coin design became a powerful declaration of return to the past. In this period of revival and consolidation, not only the old themes and styles were restored but also the connection with the eastern parts of the Byzantine empire was emphasized. Emperors brought items from the legendary east to their palaces and openly placed them for general admiration. Such was the throne of Solomon, surrounded by golden lions, birds, and trees; according to legends, the lions would roar and the birds would sing when the emperor was sitting on the throne. The solution of this mystery could be that there was an organ built in the throne to produce the amazing sounds. The idea for the throne presumably originated from the court of Persia (Cormack 115). In addition to the technology of organ-building, the emperor court and the church often used such oriental inventions as Persian silk draperies, as well as elements of Arabic writing. The Byzantine empire was once again open and welcoming other cultures. After the radical stripping the St Sophia church off its mosaics by the iconoclasts, a new look corresponding to the new vision of religious art had to be given to the building which was the center of Christian empire. Provided the amount of expertise, time, and work required by the large-scale projects, the efforts of patriarch Photios cannot be overestimated. His speech on the dedication of the first mosaic in St Sophia after iconoclasm, Virgin and the Child, is demonstrative by its deep intellectual analysis. Photios emphasized the double significance of Mary’s image both as â€Å"lifelike imitation† and â€Å"real archetype† and interpreted it as a reminder of salvation and necessity of reverence to God (Cormack 119–120). Other mosaics of the church featured essentially timeless scenes from the Bible and at the same time reflected the events of the period, immortalizing the prominent patriarchs and emperors of the time. Important accents were placed on the kind of relations between emperors and God. Humility, repentance in face of God, and generosity were the key qualities to be demonstrated by ideal Byzantine emperors and depicted in various mosaics of St Sophia. Thus, the main social norms of the time were established through art which once again proved an excellent means of communication. To any of the visitors, the artistic decorations of St Sophia clearly represented a picture of the contemporary cultural and political state of Byzantine society. In the case of historical analysis of art, the term ‘renaissance’ is mostly applied to the period of Italian art between fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Justification of Macedonian Renaissance faces the issue of whether artworks created at that time were recreations of the classical samples or whether they were innovations based on the knowledge of classical and Christian art. Compared to Italian art radical revolution towards the standards of the Ancient Greece and Rome that was based on close study of authentic ancient texts, the Byzantine knowledg e of its past art was scarce. The aggressive period of iconoclasm by large destroyed a big share of classical Byzantine art and left scarce traces of it for the coming generations. Instead of merely copying the classical samples, Byzantine artists of the tenth century rather handled the new techniques they developed against the background of classical values and ideas. The New Spirituality of the Eleventh Century and the World of the Twelfth Century After the triumphant revival Byzantine art experienced with the defeat of iconoclasm, Orthodox faith found its expression through a vast range of artistic means. The church of St Sophia was redecorated by mosaics of unprecedented scope, and Constantinople was as always dictating its will to the rest of the empire. In such situation there emerges an issue of whether Constantinople was an artistic center ever since the fall of iconoclasm and whether the provinces had any artistic traditions of their own. On the one hand, monasteries and ch urches were built and decorated all over the Byzantine empire, which evidences that cultural interest was not concentrated in the capital city only. On the other hand, it often occurred that artists from Constantinople were invited to remote areas for design and decoration of buildings, which emphasizes the exclusive nature of contemporary artistic knowledge and skills. Such materials as ivory, silk, mosaics, and enamels have traditionally been ascribed to Constantinople artisans. In certain rare cases, such as with the city of Thessaloniki, the province had the means to support and develop its own workshops. But still if attention is turned to details, dominance and prevalence of Constantinople artwork is traced in many locations. Such is the case with the church of St Sophia in Sinai: the style of figures and mosaics is similar to that represented in Constantinople. On the other hand, the interior of other churches in the region suggests a cooperation between the capital and local artists. If Byzantine art is to be considered as that exceeding the borders of Constantinople only, this attitude is supported by examples of churches found in rural areas of Asia Minor and Cappadocia (Cormack 149). Whatever the case may be, the triumphant position of the Orthodox church at period discussed facilitated quantitative and qualitative intensification in art production. One of the most significant changes of the was the transformation of the church sanctuary. In early Byzantine churches, the division between spaces for the clergy and for the laypeople was purely symbolical, not more than a humble barrier (Cormack 150). However, after the defeat of iconoclasm, the meaning and importance of the sanctuary increased dramatically, and so did the artwork decorating the place. A screen called templon was set up to divide the areas for laypeople and the places where bread and wine were kept (Cormack 151). In the centre of the screen the Royal Doors were situated, through which the priest would bring out the bread and wine symbolizing the body and blood of Christ. This screen developed through centuries and was gradually covered with an increasing amount of icons that would forever cover the sanctuary from the eyes of the laypeople. Such development of the sanctuary screen naturally required an unprecedented amount of icons to be made and venerated. Apart from the templon, icons were used on the adjacent walls and shrines dedicated to individual saints. Icons of the latter were created according to the following scheme: in the center of the icon, the key scene from the saint’s life was depicted and surrounded by smaller images of biographical moments. The daily calendar of the church also had to be illustrated with icons, and this was done either by separate icon for each occasion or by calendar icons including sets of several monthly icons (Cormack 152). During the period from ninth to fourteenth century, the quantity of icons on the sanctuary incr eased dramatically and had a double effect on the perception of the religious sacrament. On the one hand, the shield of icons increased the mystery over the sanctuary and the altar of the church. On the other hand, the images of the icons brought the divine holiness closer to laypeople and made it more understandable for them. Step by step, icons transformed their initial meaning from illustrations of religious history into visual aids directly incorporated in the liturgy. Icons of the eleventh and twelfth centuries reflect a gradual change to their nature and meaning: for the first time, the heavenly ladder is depicted and thus the ideas of divine light and salvation are promoted. One of the peculiarities of the period was the separation of monasteries from the church headed by the ‘secular’ patriarch. Emotional and social life of contemporary Byzantium was dominated by monasteries that gave refuge to those who wanted to follow Christ’s life on earth. The societ y delegated the task of worshiping God to monasteries and generously endowed them for it. Since in Christian Orthodox practice, art was the way â€Å"to assist and enhance spiritual experience†, monasteries played a central role in developments of art at that time (Cormack 158). Emperors patronized monasteries, and one of the brightest examples of it was the 1136 monastery of Christ Pantokrator. Comprising three churches, a hospital, an old people’s home, and a leprosarium, the monastery could boast interiors decorated with marble, stained glass, and mosaics. Hosting such relics as a stone on which Christ’s body supposedly rested after Crucifixion, and the prestigious icon of Virgin Hodigitra, the monastery attracted pilgrims and their generous donations (Cormack 161). For the purpose of understanding the ways Christian Byzantine art developed outside Constantinople and its suburbs, it is instructive to consider Christian monasteries that functioned in Greece du ring the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Greek Hosios Lukas monastery comprised three churches (Theotokos church, katholikon, and the crypt church). The peculiar features of the first church are the lion-headed gargoyles on the dome and the pseudo-Arabian decorations of the exterior. The katholikon is filled with marble sarcophagi and decorated with multiple wall paintings that provided a less time-consuming substitute for mosaics. The crypt church is thematically connected with the images of katholikon: the katholikon mosaic of Doubting Thomas is copied in the crypt wall painting (Cormack 165–167). In another Greek monastery, Daphni, a certain semblance in decoration types may be traced with Hosios Lukas. However, the depiction style is different: the figures are more natural and less generalized. Such minor variations suggest that the ways of depiction varied depending on the immediate needs of a given religious community. The political situation around the Byzantine em pire had changed dramatically during the two centuries. The Christian world faced the opposition between the Orthodox and the Latin church. Byzantines were driven from Italy by the Normans. Princes of Kiev established their own powerful state of Kiev Rus’. Serbian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian people demonstrated autonomous tendencies as well. However, despite the gradual loss of territorial influence, the Byzantine empire managed to extend its existence by introducing its art forms and techniques to the rest of the world. Samples of Byzantine art were created in Spain, Kiev Rus’, and Italy, which helped to preserve Byzantine culture by marrying it to that of western Europe. Art in the Service of a Failing Society Late Byzantine Art 1204–1453 The event that defined the fate of Byzantine art in its late period was the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders in April 1204. A mass transportation of Byzantine artworks started to western Europe. Relics of Christian r eligion were moved from churches where they originally reposed to churches and monasteries of Italy and France. Sculptures, vessels, enamels, books, chalices, reliefs, and many other works of art were exported from the Byzantine republic to royal residences. By the time Louis XIV came to the throne, the Louvre could boast a vastest collection of precious Byzantine vessels (Cormack 187). At the same time, the ransacked court in Constantinople struggled to preserve at lease something of its former glory. The notable issue about the western invasion into the Byzantine empire was that on the one hand, the western people were charmed and mesmerized by masterpieces of Byzantine art which they had previously known only by copies. On the other hand, quite paradoxically, most of the innovations the westerners brought to Byzantium were totally disconnected with the historical culture of the land. The church of St Sophia in Constantinople was converted for Catholicism and left deteriorating. T he new monasteries were built prevalently in western style. The cooperation of the east and the west can be traced only in the creations of Crusaders. Their mosaics, paintings, and manuscripts were therefore crucial for the development of Byzantine art in its late period. An example of mixture between western and eastern artistic styles and content can be seen in the iconic triptych from Sinai, including the scene of Coronation of the Virgin. Initially, coronation was a western procedure, and placing the Virgin on the throne next to Christ contradicted the principles of Orthodox Christianity (Cormack  190). The process of assimilation of the other culture was experienced by both the eastern and the western artists which makes it sometimes difficult to distinguish who was the real author of an artwork. After the historical events of the early thirteenth century, the Byzantine society faced a choice: whether to stick to the established traditions of Byzantine art or assimilate new i deas and techniques that came from the west. Since contacts with the west became part of daily routine in the life of Byzantine empire, the latter option appeared more likely to follow. Against this background of continuous cultural contact, the church was trying to assume a reasonable position. A profound discussion unfolded on such controversial issues of Christian religion as papal primacy, purgatory, and others (Cormack 194). Western theological works were closely studied in Byzantium and provoked some of the Byzantine people’s disappointment in Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism. Byzantine society was torn between two extremes: anti-papists on the one hand and disillusioned intellectuals on the other hand. In any case, the art of the time reflected the unstable situation where consistent positions were rarely followed. Being closely acquainted with the western achievements in Gothic and Renaissance art, Byzantine art consciously made its choice, either accepting or re jecting the foreign standards. There cannot be traced any distinct and consistent line of either following the western tradition or its denial in Byzantine art of the time. Means of expression and techniques varied greatly in this period of cultural crossroads. A significant feature of contemporary Byzantine art was its utmost religious emotionality and appeal. The loss of glory and prestige of Constantinople was a hard blow for the Byzantine empire, and the attempts to restore the former influence proved in vain (Cormack 198–199). With the return of grand court and patriarch to Constantinople in 1261, there emerged a new hope for restoring the empire. Much effort was put into collecting and displaying the artifacts of the glorious past which remained after the Crusaders invasion. The prior task for raising the prestige of the Byzantine capital was refurbishment of its major shrine, the church of St Sophia. An enormous mosaic, the Deisis, was made on the southern wall of the church (Cormack 201). Over five meters in height and six meters in width, this magnificent panel depicted Christ at the Second Coming and symbolized the restoration of the Byzantine empire to its former greatness. Together with the large scale of the mosaic, it impressed by an especial intimacy and naturalism with which the figures are performed. The delicate modeling of faces in the mosaic was a bright example of early western Renaissance style adapted by Byzantine artists. The Deisis mosaic represented an icon of extraordinary scale and was not the only representative of this large-scale genre. On the other hand, late Byzantine art also produced micro-mosaic panels that were not only used in Byzantine religious practices but also became collectors’ items among the western connoisseurs (Cormack 202–203). The late thirteenth century witnessed a peculiar innovation that resulted from artistic patronage of artworks. Thus, in Constantinople, the already existing monasteri es obtained new architectural structures and forms. The two brightest examples are the addition of a side-church to St Mary Pammakaristos and the rebuilding of the Chora Monastery (Cormack 204). The latter involved joint efforts of artists, architects, and church planners, who carried out their project by rearranging the vaults of the former katholikon, building an inner and outer narthex, and other modifications decisive for the new design. The main subject of the church were the cycles of the Life of the Virgin and the Infancy and Ministry of the Christ (Cormack  207). Focusing on salvation of the soul and significance of the Virgin, the cycles as such represent quite a traditional subject. However, this conventionality is touched up by certain innovatory findings. For one thing, the cycle contains a number of rare scenes from the life of the Virgin that had not been depicted in other locations. For another thing, different principles of perspective are used in this depiction th an in traditional western Renaissance art. Thus together with adherence to Byzantine tradition, the artwork in the Chora Monastery demonstrates latent innovation that was not to draw too much attention. The fourteenth century witnessed sufficient change in the art of iconography. The templon screen that covered the sanctuary gradually evolved into a whole iconostasis holding several layers of icons (Cormack 210). The range and complexity of the church interior cycles increased, as did the range of spiritual experience depicted in the icons. Another innovation was including the personal signature of the artist in the icon or wall painting. This tradition rooted in the western art which emphasized the growing social status of artists and presented their work as goods contesting for popularity among consumers. Although the Orthodox church discouraged such approach, artistic individuality and style became quite prominent during the period. An example of an outstanding icon painter can b e found in the figure of Theophanes the Greek who worked in Moscow and Novgorod. Cormack, Robert. Byzantine Art. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print.

Ethnic tourism in Brick lane(east London) Dissertation

Ethnic tourism in Brick lane(east London) - Dissertation Example This is set alongside the fact that many of the inhabitants are still living as a pre-21th century overcrowded village community on the edge of the ultra modern city. Introduction Shoreditch is described as ‘an area of hope and endless resilience’, (Unseen Tours, 2011). Yet it might be truer to say hope of a better future – perhaps somewhere else. Another description appears in the form of a sundial high on the wall of the Jamme Masjid Mosque (undated) in London’s Brick Lane. Clearly to be seen on its surface is the Latin tag ‘Umbra Sumus’ i.e. ... ned by Stebbins in 1996 ( page 948) as :- Cultural tourism is a genre of special interest tourism based on the search for and participation in new and deep cultural experiences, whether aesthetic, intellectual, emotional, or psychological" (948). The question to be answered is whether or not this is ultimately of benefit to the inhabitants - in particular those with origins overseas , now living in crowded conditions at the southern end of Brick Lane and its environs or on the social housing estates nearby. According to a UNESCO report on the effects of tourism ( Preface, 1995) the effects may be economically positive but :- This approach, however, reduces the cultural heritage and the environmental assets to an economic commodity minimizing or sometimes completely ignoring their socio-cultural values. Ask people to mention important sites in London and they will quickly come up with a long list – Big Ben, The Houses of Parliament, the Tower, Buckingham Palace and all the rest . But of course this is a false picture as far as Londoners are concerned. It really consists not of a string of tourists sites, but is made up of millions of ordinary people trying to exist cheek by jowl with the tourists, the icons and amidst the ensuing crush,. Crowded buses, high prices, when all they want to do is cope and perhaps find happiness and even success for themselves, their families and those they care about. What is important for them is not tourist sites, but home, family, security, who they are and where they are going.. Many of these people live in Whitechapel, and many hundreds in Brick Lane and the surrounding streets. In 1986, according to the Labour party Brick Lane at that time was:- a community of working class and industrious people: a multi-ethnic community, a historic

Strategic Innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Innovation - Essay Example Pull marketing has some similarities with push marketing, but the major difference is that marketing is directed at decision makers or influencers who in turn would pull potential customers. Pull marketing consists of many strategies that aim at creating an interest and an awareness of the innovation as well as create a need for it. It involves thorough research of people’s interests and creating a relation with the innovation (Kelley, 2012). According to Kelley (2012), companies should invest in both push and pull innovation if they want to establish balanced and consistent profitability. However, most companies invest more in push innovation since it is easier and offers immediate effects. Companies should know that pull innovation helps grow the potential customer range expand in the long-run and, therefore, should seek to establish a balance in both methods. For instance, as stated by Kelley (2012), states that push marketing Innovation is ideal when there is a ready market for the product and the company just needs to highlight the benefits of the innovation. Push marketing occurs when an innovation is just an improvement of past innovations and there is already an awareness of the product. Also, push marketing is ideal when a company seeks to solidify the customer loyalty. Pull innovation is ideal when the innovator seeks to attract customers who are unaware or simply disinterested in the product. Also, pull innovation used to expand customer bases in the long run. Pull marketing of innovation is best when an innovation is most disruptive of the normal trends and solutions offered to problems. When an innovation is completely new in the market, the solution it offers is not obvious; therefore, awareness is needed first before introducing push innovation (Blan, 2009). Business innovation arises from many sources such as employees, business competitors, and reaction to an arising need, customers and even

Altruism Is Ultimately Selfish Essay Example for Free

Altruism Is Ultimately Selfish Essay Discuss the proposal that pure selfless altruism does not exist. Bartel (1976) defines prosocial behaviour as ‘behaviour that intentionally helps or benefits another person’. Batson (1987) defines altruism as ‘helping another person for no reward, and even at some cost to oneself.’ This definition of altruism seemingly depicts the behaviour as selfless, however there is a wealth of research which suggests that this is not the case. Dawkins (1976) also provides evidence that altruism is ultimately selfish. He separated individuals into three categories in regards to prosocial behaviour displayed. These were grudgers, cheats and suckers. Grudgers were deemed to be the most evolutionary stable category, as they could control and ‘punish’ cheats (who seek out and accept the help of others without returning the help) and could coexist with suckers (who indiscriminately provide others with help). This therefore provides support for the sociobiological view of prosocial behaviour, that it is ultimately selfish as its aim is to promote gene survival. However, this theory can only work if we know one’s altruistic or egoistic behaviour, and so Many studies have shown that we will only help others if we believe they would also help us. Clutton-Brock and Palmer (1995) found altruism to be conditional, which suggests that it therefore cannot be selfless. However, this can only work if we know one’s altruistic or egoistic behaviour, and so cannot benefit evolution if we do not (Mifune et al. 2010) This view is supported by the Social Norm approach. The Social Norm approach argues that altruism is based on reciprocity and equity. Equity theory states that we consider interactions to be fair if the outcomes are equally proportionate to the inputs (Wagstaff, 2001). A limitation of this theory is that Buunk et al (2012) found it difficult to apply to intimate relationships. A further limitation is that positive inputs could yield negative results, which is not fair or just (Wagstaff, 2001). An amendment to this theory by Wagstaff and Perfect (1993, 2001) ensured that good inputs can only be returned with rewards, and negative inputs can only be returned with punishments. There is evidence to suggest that people do operate by this model (Wagstaff, 2001) which implies that decisions of whether to display prosocial behaviour are weighted in fairness, meaning that altruistic acts may only be displayed if the individual perceives it to be fair to others. Cialdini and Kendrick (1976) devised the Negative state relief model to offer a possible explanation of altruism. This suggests that we help others to relieve negative feelings. This has been supported by Piliavin (1981) who argued in his Arousal: Cost reward model that negative feelings, such as guilt, instigate negative arousal and therefore people may provide others with help to alleviate this negative emotion. Both of these models suggest that we are helping others to help ourselves, which supports the claim that true, s elfless altruism does not exist. However, other research has found that helping behaviour increases in correlation with positive mood states (Isen, 1999). Even so, Carlson (1988) argues that this could be due to an individuals drive to prolong their good mood state by helping others. One limitation of this view is that it assumes that helping is a rewarding behaviour. Another norm in respect to prosocial behaviour is social responsibility, which can be defined as helping those in need. Altruistic or prosocial acts tend to be more frequent towards ingroup (such as friends and family) than outgroup members (Cohen, 1978; Mifune et al, 2010.) Burnstein (2005) found that identical twins are more likely to help (94%) than fraternal twins (46%) which supports this hypothesis. There is also evidence to suggest that kidney donors are three times more likely to donate to relatives than nonrelatives (Borgida et al, 1992; Axelrod et al 2010). These findings suggest that altruistic acts are not purely selfless; seeing our friends and families in pain increases our own personal negative affect, and so we are more motivated to help them than we would be strangers. However evidence suggests that social responsibility can be diffused. This reduces helping behaviour within groups. Latane and Darley (1970) coined the terms pluralistic ignorance (not helping because it appears that no one else is concerned) and diffusion of responsibility (the tendency to believe that someone else must be dealing with the situation). This lack of helping behaviour in group situations shows that prosocial behaviour cannot be explained by social responsibility alone and so do individuals who help despite the above effects show more selflessly altruistic tendencies? Further evidence against selfless altruism comes from the evidence that individual attributes appear to effect prosocial and altruistic behaviour being displayed. Ruggiero et al (1981) found that taller, heavier and physically stronger people are more likely to put themselves in harm’s way to help others in an emergency. This would suggest that an individual has first considered the cost to themselves of helping, meaning their act would not be selflessly altruistic. One contrast to this theory is that this body type closely resembles Sheldon’s (1942) mesomorph body type; who was claimed to be more likely to have tendencies towards violent crime. Pantin and carver (1982) found that participants were more likely to help a choking confederate after three weeks first aid training than without it. Also, Eisenberg-Berg (1979) found that prosocial behaviour increases if a person believes their fate to be within their own control, and if the person has mature moral judgement. This again implies that an individual tends to consider their own competency and implications of helping others prior to doing so, again raising doubts over the existence of selfless altruism. However Batson et al (1987; 2003) claim that true, selfless altruism does exist; and that it is motivated by empathy. Batson claims that if helping is motivated by relieving personal distress, an individual could simply flee the scene., yet true empathic concern for another cannot be alleviated by escaping. In his study, Batson assigned participants to high and low empathy conditions, and easy or difficult to escape conditions; to leave after two trials or ten trials respectively. He also gave participants the option of changing places with the victim after two trials. When escape was easy, individuals with low empathic concern escaped the situation. However those with high empathic concern stayed and changed places with the victim. Batson claimed this to be true altruism. Traits such as aggression and dominance are associated with reduced empathy , and individuals with these traits have been shown to show less prosocial behaviour than those without them (Eisenberg et al, 2010). However empathy can be perceived as creating a negative affect such as guilt if help was not offered, and this negative state would be beneficial for an individual to relieve; therefore helping another individual with whom you have empathy for can relieve negative emotion in oneself, and can even instigate positive affect and/ or mood. This supports Pilliavin’s (1981) Arousal: Cost reward model and Cialdini and Kendrick’s (1976) Negative state relief model and therefore provides evidence that selfless altruism does not exist. In contrast, Batson (1989) found that people were not more likely to help others when informed that doing so would gi ve them access to a mood enhancing procedure. The finding that reciprocal altruism can be learned (Rachlin, 2003) raises an interesting question of whether it can be unlearned. Warnekin and Tomasello (2008) found 36 20 month old toddlers who consistently helped by picking up an object. Some were rewarded after showing this behaviour. They found that the children who were rewarded decreased this behaviour unless they were rewarded for it again; whereas the toddlers who were given no reward were more likely to continue helping. In support of this, Knafo, Schwartz and Levine (2009) found that in countries were individuals are raised to be helpful, there was a reduced tendency to help out group members. As helping in group members is more likely to relieve negative affect than helping outgroup members, this could be viewed as a reduced tendency to display altruistic behaviour. These studies raise the question as to whether it is possible that true altruism does exist, and whether theories such as social learning theory may play a role on its nurturance or demise within a culture or group. Sabini (1995) stated that if true altruism exists, it excludes any rational reasons for helping others, be it extrinsic or intrinsic rewards. In fact according to the sociobiological principle, it would be evolutionarily weak to be selflessly altruistic, as we may become like Dawkin’s ‘suckers’ helping cheats to prosper. This provides further evidence that selfless altruism does not exist; as we would not be able to grow and prosper as a society. In conclusion, the majority of evidence suggests that true altruism does not exist.